Mesenchymal stem cells can be derived from a diverse range of tissues. Originally, Friedenstein et al. isolated MSCs from the bone marrow (BM) and stroma of the spleen and thymus.[1][2] MSCs have since been derived from tissues as varied as the brain, spleen, liver, kidney, lung, bone marrow, muscle, thymus, and pancreas.[3] However, bone marrow aspirates are still considered to be the most convenient and enriched source of MSCs.[4]
Fetal tissue also contains MSCs, with common sources including umbilical cord blood and fetal placenta. These sources may represent ontogenetically younger MSCs. Evidence exists that MSCs from fetal sources can undergo more cell divisions before they reach senescence than MSCs from adult tissue.[5]
Variations at the genetic level have also been well documented for MSCs from different sources,[6] as have differences in the types of chemokines and cytokines the cells produce.[7]
The most common adult sources of MSCs include:
- Stroma of Bone Marrow: This was the first isolated source and remains the most common one.
- Adipose Tissue: Represents a readily available source of MSCs.
- Dental Pulp: Interestingly, a very rich source for dental pulp MSCs is the developing tooth bud of the mandibular third molar. MSCs derived from this source demonstrate preferential capacity to differentiate into bone and neurons.[8],[9]
The most common fetal sources of MSCs include:
- Umbilical Cord Blood: MSCs can be derived from umbilical cord vasculature, although low count per volume usually means that expansion is required to obtain practical quantities.
- Wharton’s Jelly: MSCs are also found within this gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord.
- Placenta: MSCs can be derived from several placenta components, including the chorion, amnion, and villous stroma.[10]
Adult Sources of Mesenchymal Stem Cells
The table below presents adult tissue sources from which MSCs can be isolated. The intriguing range of tissues encompasses everything from small vessels (such as kidney glomeruli) to large blood vessels (including the aortic artery and vena cava). In addition, it includes a large number of mesenchyme-derived tissue (bone components, skeletal muscle, tendons, cartilage, and more), as well as non-mesenchyme derived tissues (neural tissue).
TABLE: Adult Sources for Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Isolation
| Source | Abbreviation | Reference | Comments |
| Adipose Tissue | AT-MSC | [11] | MSCs derived from this tissue do not differentiate well into chondrocytes. |
| Aortic Artery | |||
| Articular Cartilage | [12] | ||
| Bone Marrow | BM-MSC | [13][14] | BM-MSCs can be conveniently derived by bone marrow aspirate. |
| Dental Pulp | DP-MSC | [15] | MSCs derived from this source demonstrate preferential capacity to differentiate into bone and neurons. |
| Kidney glomeruli | [16] | ||
| Liver | L-MSC | [17] | |
| Lung | L-MSC | [18] | |
| Neural Tissue | N-MSC | [19] | |
| Pancreas | PMSC | [20] | |
| Periostium | – | [21] | |
| Skeletal Muscle | M-MSC | [22] | |
| Dermis | – | [23][24] | |
| Stroma of Spleen | S-MSC | [25][26] | Friedenstein et al. isolated MSCs from the stroma of the spleen and thymus as early as 1976. |
| Stroma of Thymus | T-MSC | [27][28] | (See comment above.) |
| Synovium & Synovial Fluid | – | [29] | |
| Tendons | – | [30] | |
| Trabecular Bone | – | [31] | |
| Vena Cava | – | [32] | |
| Xiphoid Cartilage | – | [33] |
Fetal Sources of Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Similarly, the table below presents fetal sources from which MSCs can be isolated.
TABLE: Fetal Sources for Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Isolation
| Source | Abbreviation | Reference | Comments |
| Umbilical Cord Vasculature | CB-MSC | [34][35] | Most common fetal source of MSCs. Fetal cord blood can be collected at birth and publicly or privately stored as a future source of MSCs. |
| Placenta | – | [36] | |
| Amnion | A-MSC | [37] | Interestingly, MSCs derived from this source do not exhibit the ability to differentiate into adipocytes. |
| Wharton’s Jelly | WJ-MSC | [38] | Wharton’s Jelly is a gelatinous substance found within the umbilical cord. |
| Fetal Tissues (Pancreas, Spleen, Thymus) | – | [39] | MSCs from fetal tissues have been successfully differentiated into cells of osteogenic, chondrogenic, and adipogenic lineages. |
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] Friedenstein AJ, Gorskaja JF, Kulagina NN. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp Hematol 1976; 4(5): 267—274.
[2] Friedenstein AJ, Piatetzky-Shapiro II, Petrakova KV. Osteogenesis in transplants of bone marrow cells. J Embryol Exp Morphol 1966; 16(3): 381—390.
[3] da Silva Meirelles L, Chagastelles PC, Nardi NB. Mesenchymal stem cells reside in virtually all post-natal organs and tissue. Cell Science 2006.
[4] Tuli R, Seghatoleslami MR, Tuli S, et al. A simple, high-yield method for obtaining multi-potential mesenchymal progenitor cells from trabecular bone. Mol Biotechnol 2003; 23(1): 37—49.
[5] Klingemann H, et al. Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Sources and Clinical Applications. Transfus Med Hemother 2008; 35: 272-277.
[6] Wagner W, Wein F, Seckinger A, et al. Comparative characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells from human bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord blood. Exp Hematol 2005; 33: 1402–16.
[7] Friedman R, Betancur M, Tuncer H, Boissel L, Klingemann H. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells: Adjuvants for human cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2007; 13: 1477–1486.
[8] Gronthos S, Brahim J, Li W, et al. Stem cell properties of human dental pulp stem cells. J Dent Res 2002; 8: 531–535.
[9] Yu J, Wang Y, Deng Z, Li Y, Shi J, Jin Y. Odontogenic capability: bone marrow stromal stem cells versus dental pulp stem cells. Biol Cell 2007; 8: 465–474.
[10] Portmann-Lanz CB. Placental mesenchymal stem cells as potential autologous graft for pre- and perinatal neuroregeneration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194(3): 664-673.
[11] De Bari C, Dell’Accio F, Vandenabeele F, et al. Skeletal muscle repair by adult human mesenchymal stem cells from synovial membrane. J Cell Biol 2003; 160(6): 909—918.
[12] Alsalameh S, Amin R, Gemba T, Lotz M. Identification of mesenchymal progenitor cells in normal and osteoarthritic human articular cartilage. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50(5): 1522—1532.
[13] Friedenstein AJ, Gorskaja JF, Kulagina NN. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp Hematol 1976; 4(5): 267—274.
[14] Friedenstein AJ, Piatetzky-Shapiro II, Petrakova KV. Osteogenesis in transplants of bone marrow cells. J Embryol Exp Morphol 1966; 16(3): 381—390.
[15] Gronthos S, Brahim J, Li W, et al: Stem cell properties of human dental pulp stem cells. J Dent Res 2002; 8: 531–535.
[16] Klingemann H, Matzilevich D, Marchand J. Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Sources and Clinical Applications. Transfus Med Hemother 2008; 35: 272-277.
[17] Klingemann H, Matzilevich D, Marchand J. Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Sources and Clinical Applications. Transfus Med Hemother 2008; 35: 272-277.
[18] Friedenstein AJ, Gorskaja JF, Kulagina NN. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp Hematol 1976; 4(5): 267—274.
[19] Klingemann H, Matzilevich D, Marchand J. Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Sources and Clinical Applications. Transfus Med Hemother 2008; 35: 272-277.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Cuevas P, Carceller F, Garcia-Gomez I, et al. Bone marrow stromal cell implantation for peripheral nerve repair. Neurol Res 2004; 26(2): 230—232.
[22] Young HE, Steele TA, Bray RA, et al. Human reserve pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells are present in the connective tissues of skeletal muscle and dermis derived from fetal, adult, and geriatric donors. Anat Rec 2001; 264(1): 51—62.
[23] Young HE, Steele TA, Bray RA, et al. Human reserve pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells are present in the connective tissues of skeletal muscle and dermis derived from fetal, adult, and geriatric donors. Anat Rec 2001; 264(1): 51—62.
[24] Young RG, Butler DL, Weber W, et al. Use of mesenchymal stem cells in a collagen matrix for Achilles tendon repair. J Orthop Res 1998; 16(4): 406—413.
[25] Pountos I, Giannoudis P. Biology of mesenchymal stem cells. Injury, Int J Care Injured 2005; 365: S8-S12.
[26] Friedenstein AJ, Gorskaja JF, Kulagina NN. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp Hematol 1976; 4(5): 267—274.
[27] Pountos I, Giannoudis P. Biology of mesenchymal stem cells. Injury, Int J Care Injured 2005; 365: S8-S12.
[28] Friedenstein AJ, Gorskaja JF, Kulagina NN. Fibroblast precursors in normal and irradiated mouse hematopoietic organs. Exp Hematol 1976; 4(5): 267—274.
[29] Jones EA, English A, Henshaw K, et al. Enumeration and phenotypic characterization of synovial fluid multi-potential mesenchymal progenitor cells in inflammatory and degenerative arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50(3): 817—827.
[30] Salingcarnboriboon R, Yoshitake H, Tsuji K, et al. Establishment of tendon-derived cell lines exhibiting pluripotent mesenchymal stem cell-like property. Exp Cell Res 2003; 15: 289—300.
[31] Tuli R, Seghatoleslami MR, Tuli S, et al. A simple, high-yield method for obtaining multi-potential mesenchymal progenitor cells from trabecular bone. Mol Biotechnol 2003; 23(1): 37—49.
[32] Klingemann H, Matzilevich D, Marchand J. Mesenchymal Stem Cells – Sources and Clinical Applications. Transfus Med Hemother 2008; 35: 272-277.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Friedman R, Betancur M, Tuncer H, Boissel L, Klingemann H. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells: Adjuvants for human cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2007; 13: 1477–1486.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Pountos I, Giannoudis P. Biology of mesenchymal stem cells. Injury, Int J Care Injured 2005; 36: S8—S12.
[38] Friedman R, Betancur M, Tuncer H, Boissel L, Klingemann H. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells: Adjuvants for human cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2007; 13: 1477–1486.
[39] Ying Huab, et al. Isolation and identification of mesenchymal stem cells from human fetal pancreas. J Lab Clin Med 2003; 141(5): 342-349.